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Abstract

The work of the Nobel Laureate Karl von Frisch, the founder of this journal, was seminal in many ways. He established the honeybee equally a fundamental animal model for experimental behavioural studies on sensory perception, learning and memory, and first correctly interpreted its famous trip the light fantastic toe communication. Here, we report on a previously unknown letter by the Physicist and Nobel Laureate Albert Einstein that was written in October 1949. It briefly addresses the work of von Frisch and also queries how understanding beast perception and navigation may lead to innovations in physics. Nosotros discuss records proving that Einstein and von Frisch met in April 1949 when von Frisch visited the USA to present a lecture on bees at Princeton Academy. In the historical context of Einstein's theories and thought experiments, we talk over some more contempo discoveries of animal sensory capabilities alien to united states of america humans and potentially valuable for bio-inspired design improvements. We likewise address the orientation of animals like migratory birds mentioned by Einstein lxx years agone, which pushes the boundaries of our understanding nature, both its biological science and physics.

Innovation by critical thinkers: Einstein and von Frisch

As science and technology advance, so too does the specialization at their frontiers. This specialization tin can take the unfortunate effect of isolating thinkers and breaking apart research disciplines. Reacting against this evolution is transdisciplinary fields bringing together experts from different disciplines to solve mutual problems. Such barriers between disciplines often did non exist until fairly recently, and where they did exist, they were porous to the great minds of their time.

Albert Einstein (Fig. 1a) is widely recognized as i of the greatest thinkers of the twentieth century. His imagination and insight nevertheless inspire u.s.a. today. Einstein's piece of work on quantum mechanics directly led to the transistor revolution and the information age, while his theory of general relativity governs the big-scale structure of the universe and provides the necessary corrections for location conclusion by the Global Positioning Arrangement (GPS). Nevertheless, it might be easy to pigeonhole Einstein every bit a mathematician and theoretical physicist, concerning himself solely with an abstract world of numbers and equations. That Einstein was too concerned with practicalities and had a broad interest in enquiry and humanity is well discussed in Galison'due south book "Einstein'southward clocks, Poincare's maps: empires of time" (2003).

Fig. 1

Key thinkers almost physics and nature. a Professor Albert Einstein in 1947. From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. b Professor Karl von Frisch observing bees. From Wikipedia By Source (WP:NFCC#4), Fair apply, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/alphabetize.php?curid=50796040

Full size paradigm

Karl von Frisch (Fig. 1b) founded the present journal together with Alfred Kühn in 1924. Past employing innovative experimental techniques to empathise how bee behaviour worked (von Frisch 1915, 1923, 1949, 1965, 1967, 1973, 1974), von Frisch inspired generations of researchers in the pursuit of unveiling a variety of sensory capacities in the beast world (Hölldobler and Lindauer 1985; Dyer and Arikawa 2014). The subsequent use of transdisciplinary research approaches to understand sensory perception too resulted in insights into how physics principles are used by biological organisms to enable solutions to circuitous problems (Hölldobler and Lindauer 1985; Barth et al. 2012; Galizia et al. 2012). In early 1949, whilst withal at the University of Graz in Austria before returning to Munich in Deutschland, von Frisch had published one of his about important findings that honeybees could communicate the location of rewarding flowers with conspecifics via a symbolic dance language (von Frisch 1949). The bee trip the light fantastic language represents the vector management and altitude of a patch of flowers from the hive, and uses as a key reference the position of the sun or the inferred position via the degree of polarization of the sky if the dominicus is obscured by clouds. The discovery of the symbolic bee trip the light fantastic language by von Frisch generated immense interest amidst biologists, and Professor WH Thorpe of Cambridge University in England had visited von Frisch in Austria during September 1948 and repeated the experiments, which were published (Thorpe 1949) as a confirmation study in Nature on the 2nd of July 1949. Years later in 1973, together with Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen, von Frisch was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. In the written credence spoken communication for receiving the Nobel Prize, which was delivered past his son Otto von Frisch due to poor health of Karl von Frisch at the time, he prominently discusses the importance of the seminal bee dance language studies published in 1949 (von Frisch 1973).

Einstein meets von Frisch at Princeton University

In Apr 1949, von Frisch was invited to present a lecture at Princeton University in the United States of America. It is known that Einstein attended the lecture by von Frisch, and von Frisch himself seems to have been impressed every bit he writes in his memoir (von Frisch 1962 p145: translation Natalie Barth): "New York was followed by a visit to Princeton. During my lecture there the striking head of ALBERT EINSTEIN captivated me among the audience. Outstandingly intelligent faces in the audience are useful, I observe, for the lecturer. One makes an extra try to pull oneself together. On the other hand, at popular lectures, I as well discover with pleasure a particularly witless eyebrow. If a glimmer of understanding appears on such a face, I know that I am on the right path. EINSTEIN invited us to visit him in his laboratory, where, the next 24-hour interval, we engaged in a friendly dispute with this humorous man. Information technology was more than xl years ago that my physicist uncle FRANZ EXNER had tried to convey to us clueless laymen in a pocket-sized circle of family and friends an idea of EINSTEIN'south ingenious and at that time still new accomplishment." Information technology is not known exactly what else the 2 professors discussed in their meeting at Princeton University in April 1949, merely a previously unknown letter written by Einstein to Glyn Davys on the 18th October 1949 permits some new insights into the meeting of von Frisch and Einstein.

Glyn Davys contacts Einstein

Michael Normal "Glyn" Davys was born in 1925, and in 1942 joined the British Imperial Navy where he was trained every bit an engineer. In 1946, he was transferred to the shipping carrier HMS Illustrious to do inquiry on RADAR where he served until September 1947. He then went to the Primal Schoolhouse of Drama to study acting, before working every bit an actor, producer and managing director in the theatre and television set manufacture during the 1950s. It appears that Glyn Davys had written to Einstein at Princeton University or the Institute for Advanced Written report in Princeton with a query about animal perception and physics. However, afterwards recently searching known repositories of Einstein's records, we have non nonetheless been able to locate the original alphabetic character written by Glyn Davys and answered by Einstein. Although the letter may no longer be, by tracing available evidence, it is possible to infer when the letter was written, and the likely topic of the alphabetic character.

Skylight polarization and Einstein's response to Davys

With the publication of the findings on the effects of the polarization pattern of the heaven on the dances and the orientation of honeybees (von Frisch 1949; Thorpe 1949), there was almost immediate media and public involvement in England. In his newspaper, Thorpe (1949) writes "while the mechanism of perception of the polarisation remains obscure, the essential facts seem to be well established, and it appears that nosotros are justified in the conclusion which von Frisch himself reaches, that the polarisation of the light of the sky is an effective indication for bee orientation". This publication in Nature enabled public admission to the findings of von Frisch and on the 7th of July 1949 The Guardian newspaper in London disseminated how the findings almost the bee trip the light fantastic language were enabled past polarization sensitive vision. This article, or secondary reporting of the news in England, is thus the almost likely source for how Glyn Davys became enlightened of the new research findings of von Frisch on bee sensory perception. These dates in 1949 fit with the fourth dimension frame for Professor Einstein to receive a letter from Glyn Davys, and then write a answer letter dated 18th October 1949. Glyn Davys passed away on the 4th Jan 2011 (Association pour la Promotion des Extraits Foliaires en Nutrition 2012). However, recent correspondence with his son John Davys in 2021 confirms that he recalls as an adult a conversation with his father who said that he "was interested in the bees' use of the plane of polarisation of sunlight equally a navigational aid". It is thus probable that this is at to the lowest degree one topic of the alphabetic character that Glyn Davys wrote to Professor Einstein as he had access to publicly bachelor and relevant information at the correct timeframe, and communicated an interest in that topic. The render letter from Einstein suggests Glyn Davys must take specifically mentioned bees and von Frisch since this is the topic of the response alphabetic character. Having worked on RADAR inquiry in 1946 and 1947, Glyn Davys had almost likely also been well primed to thinking nearly potential relationships between physics and biology. In the 1940s, physics principles had been used to develop RADAR to enable remote monitoring of aircraft and ships (Watson Jr 2009). Notwithstanding, it would take been common for most people in the 1940s to take assumed with a strong anthropocentric bias that animals might only employ the traditional 'v human being senses' (sight, sound, touch, smell, and sense of taste) to collaborate with their environment. Interestingly, as a remarkable coincidence to the important physics and engineering breakthroughs in RADAR during the 1940s, the independent investigation of echolocation or "bio-radar" past bats was published effectually the same fourth dimension (Griffin 1944; Grinnell 2018). This coincidence of science started to increase attending to what sensory capabilities different animals may have, and whether these could exist studied to empathise the physics principles required for improving and designing innovative solutions of technical problems. Glyn Davys writing to Einstein in 1949 was thus very likely frontwards thinking about time to come possibilities regarding navigational technologies.

The response letter written by Einstein is reproduced here for the beginning time (Fig. 2) with permission of the Davys family which has had sole possession of the letter since 1949. It is almost certain that until now the content of the letter has remained unknown to the scientific community and the full general public. Glyn Davys mentioned the existence of the letter to his children when they were young, only he himself idea that the letter was lost following several moves during his life. It just came to light when his wife, Judith Davys, was sorting out his papers after his death in 2011 and subsequently put the Einstein letter of the alphabet abroad for safe keeping. A copy of the letter was recently provided to The Albert Einstein Archives at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, where Professor Einstein bequeathed his notes, letters and records, and the letter was authenticated as genuine. The letter of the alphabet is also briefly mentioned in a newsletter referring to the life of Glyn Davys (Clan pour la Promotion des Extraits Foliaires en Nutrition 2012).

Fig. 2

Letter dated 18th October 1949 by Professor Albert Einstein from Princeton (The states) to Mr Glyn (written Mr Ghyn [sic]) Davys in England with reference to the work of von Frisch and sensory perception of animals

Total size epitome

Whilst the typed alphabetic character by Einstein reproduced in Fig. two is brief, information technology does contain some interesting thoughts most our present knowledge of brute sensory perception. From the starting time sentence of the letter "I am well acquainted with Mr. 5. Frisch'due south admirable investigation" it is clear that von Frisch's ideas about bee sensory perception had remained present in Einstein'southward thinking since his coming together at Princeton University with von Frisch six months earlier.

In his letter (Fig. 2) Einstein continues: "But I cannot see a possibility to utilize those results in the investigation concerning the footing of physics. Such could only be the case if a new kind of sensory perception, resp. of their stimuli, would exist revealed through the behaviour of the bees". Einstein thus appeared open up to the possibilities of undiscovered sensory cues, and how that may open our eyes and minds to new possibilities and technological developments.

Although Einstein could non have known it, in more recent times, the behaviour of bees has revealed some novel and interesting phenomena well-nigh how the world can be sensed in culling ways. These discoveries have already led to improvements in various technologies like that of sensors, robotics, and artificial intelligence (Barth et al. 2012; Srinivasan et al. 2012; Srinivasan 2020).

A very complex problem many animals must solve is to know their own location in an environs equally they travel in search of nutrient, mates and/or shelter, and there are multiple examples of sophisticated navigational abilities in different insect models. In a 2-dimensional environment for terrestrial animals like ants, this is already a complex problem for which the solution requires the integration of multiple cues (Wystrach et al. 2014; Wehner 2020). For case, the African ball-rolling dung beetle tin navigate using the sun, the moon, the angelic polarization pattern, stars, and the Galaxy (Dacke et al. 2013). Flying bees, birds or unmanned flying machines navigate in a three-dimensional surround where the dimension of top adds enormously to the computational requirements on a brain to reliably map spatial location (Srinivasan 2020).

Classically, it was proposed that bees might have a machinery to approximate distance via energy consumption (Heran and Wanke 1952; von Frisch 1967). However, subsequent research has shown that honeybees really employ a visually driven odometer that detects the amount of optic menstruum to gauge distance (Esch et al. 2001; Srinivasan 2000; Srinivasan et al. 2012). Such a robust mechanism can be translated into auto coding to enable unmanned aeronautical vehicles to apart operate in complex environments (Srinivasan 2011; Srinivasan et al. 2012). Other contempo research has revealed that bumblebees can detect and behaviourally utilise weak electrical fields to economize their foraging (Clarke et al. 2013), and honeybees have a capacity to notice the Earth'due south magnetic field potentially either past signals transmitted from the short wavelength photoreceptor, as reported for Drosophila (Gegear et al. 2008), and/or by ferromagnetic crystals present in the bee's abdomen (Liang et al. 2016) . Thus, 70 years after Einstein thought and typed his ideas well-nigh "Such could only be the case if a new kind of sensory perception, resp. [respectively] of their stimuli, would be revealed through the behaviour of bees", there are new findings about the behaviour of bees and other animals. Novel sensory and perceptual capabilities are indeed notwithstanding beingness discovered and providing bio-inspired ideas employing physics and engineering science principles for the development of solutions to complex issues. Yet, whilst such recent discoveries do bridge our knowledge betwixt separate fields, every bit Einstein writes, such work might not exist informing the basis of physics. For example, Einstein had seen in Apr 1949 von Frisch's work involving polarization perception in bees which was a beautiful case of how biology can utilise physics principles, but in itself was not at the forefront of physics innovation.

Novel insights in long-distance navigation

Consider the 2nd of Einstein's thoughts in the letter (Fig. two), "It is thinkable that the investigation of the behaviour of migratory birds and carrier pigeons may anytime lead to the understanding of some physical procedure which is not yet known". It is amazing that he conceived this possibility, decades before empirical prove revealed that several animals can indeed perceive magnetic fields and employ such information for navigation (Walker et al. 2002). Considering homing pigeons, behavioural studies show that individual birds with occluded vision that have travelled a long altitude can orientate to within 2 km of their loft by sensing magnetic fields, although without vision they cannot precisely locate it (Schmidt-Koenig and Walcott 1978; Gould 1982). The navigation of migratory birds reveals the potential use of multiple sensory cues like stars, sun, geomagnetic field, and polarized light for orientation (Beason and Wiltschko 2015). Enquiry on Catharus thrushes fitted with radio transmitters shows that these birds use a magnetic compass as the primary orientation guide in flight. The magnetic compass is calibrated daily relative to the solar azimuth during the sunset and/or twilight period to compensate for angle alter relative to electric current position. Due to the big distances that many birds wing to render to a specific convenance site every year, this is a job that requires the precise calculation of the destination with little margin for error (Cochran et al. 2004).

Despite much recent research on the biophysics principles enabling such long-distance navigation, there is still considerable debate over the exact mechanism allowing for such a feat. Even so, radical germination by cryptochrome proteins in avian retinas are potentially an important component of the ability to sense magnetic fields in various vertebrate and invertebrate species (Ritz et al. 2002; Hiscock et al. 2016), but the precise physics principles underpinning such an animate being perception is notwithstanding a topic of intense investigation. Perhaps ironically, information technology is also conjectured that the radical pair mechanism is an case of non-piffling quantum biology operating at the nano- and subnanometer scale, which explicitly utilizes breakthrough randomness, superposition and even breakthrough entanglement (Ritz et al. 2004; Hore and Mouritsen 2016; Marais et al. 2018). The irony is that although Einstein (along with Max Planck) introduced science to quantum mechanics, he famously rejected breakthrough randomness and the entanglement as 'spooky activeness at a distance' (Alphabetic character from Einstein to Max Built-in, 3 March 1947; Built-in et al. 1971). Nevertheless, the openness of Einstein's mind to novel possibilities observed in nature is clearly shown in the letter to Glyn Davys (Fig. 2), and over 70 years subsequently possibilities envisaged by Einstein practise remain an open field of active research.

The impressive use of multisensory information by animals to make complex and behaviourally relevant decisions requires demanding and energy efficient processing. The bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica baueri) has been satellite-tracked flying nonstop eleven,000-km from Alaska to New Zealand (Gill et al. 2009), a navigation chore that must have a very slim budget for information processing. Honeybees also navigate in complex 3D environments on very tight energy budgets (von Frisch 1967; Srinivasan 2011). They extract statistical information about co-occurrence contingencies of visual scenes (Avarguès-Weber et al. 2020), suggesting that the way tiny insect brains enable such tasks yet contains many lessons for improving reckoner and robot design (Srinivasan 2020). The report of insects which tin can navigate past polarized skylight such as crickets, locusts, flies, bees, ants, and dung beetles has resulted in bio-inspired polarized skylight-based navigation sensors. Such devices include the (1) polarization navigation sensor on photodetector with linear pic polarizers, (2) camera-based polarization sensors, and (3) division of focal plane (DOFP) polarimeter-based complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) polarization imaging sensors. Any of these sensors could potentially be used to develop a miniaturized bio-inspired navigation device for humans (Karman et al. 2012).

Scientists like Einstein have an amazing effect on our physical and intellectual existence, often well across their ain field and time (Hawking 2002). Glyn Davys was grateful to have received a reply from Einstein to his letter (Association pour la Promotion des Extraits Foliaires en Nutrition 2012), and went on to publish some of his own inquiry (Vyas et al. 2010).

Advanced agreement of bee cognition underlines Einstein'south foresight

The honeybee has become an of import model in research aiming at an understanding of how a miniature brain can process data (Giurfa 2007, 2019; Srinivasan 2020). At the same time, in that location has been considerable interest in potentially bio-inspired solutions for the design of efficient computers (Merolla et al. 2014) with reduced energy consumption (Masanet et al. 2020). Bees take demonstrated their chapters to perform many cognitive-like tasks including maze navigation (Zhang et al. 2000), face processing (Avarguès-Weber et al. 2018) and multimodal processing (Giurfa et al. 2001; Ravi et al. 2016; Solvi et al. 2020), analogous to what big brained primates can reach (Chittka and Niven 2009; Avarguès-Weber et al. 2020). The publication of two contempo studies showing that bees can learn to understand the mathematical concept of zippo (Howard et al. 2018) and also perform basic arithmetics (Giurfa 2019; Howard et al. 2019) received wide media coverage effectually the world (Dyer et al. 2020). Judith Davys, the wife of the belatedly Glyn Davys, heard a BBC radio coverage about what bees can do, including these ii studies, and recalled the letter of the alphabet written to her husband by Einstein that has remained all this fourth dimension in the possession of the family. She contacted one of u.s.a. (AGD) and provided a copy of the letter shown in Fig. two.

All the discoveries mentioned past us, and many other related scientific breakthroughs since Einstein'southward letter of 1949, promise that there is nonetheless much to exist learnt from multidisciplinary studies incorporating general biology, behavioural ecology, neuroethology, physics and engineering science (Barth et al. 2012). For example, the presence of multiple photoreceptors in a single polychromatic rhabdom of a butterfly's or many other insects' ommatidium allows the resolution of different wavelengths in a single pixel at the limit of spatial sensitivity (Takeuchi et al. 2006). This blueprint principle can work for i-shot multilayer array sensors for digital cameras which can differentially absorb photons depending on the wavelength of light and enable multispectral sensing (Lyon and Hubel 2002). A more recent innovation comes from the complex visual organization of the mantis shrimp (Neogonodactylus oerstedii) (Marshall and Oberwinkler 1999; Thoen et al. 2014; Marshall and Arikawa 2014) and the pattern of a hyperspectral photo detector mimicking the spectral and polarimetric sensing capabilities of mantis shrimps (Altaqui et al. 2021). Some other such case is our cognition of the dolphin sonar, which enabled engineers to amend shallow water sonar using bio-inspired physics principles (Au 2004; Dobbins 2007). Finally, the studies of bee vision led to efficient new solutions of colour mapping for motorcar vision (Garcia et al. 2017). Thus, whilst no farther record of the meeting between Einstein and von Frisch is known to exist, the glimpses at the short letter of the alphabet from Einstein to Glyn Davys propose that the two researchers most likely discussed how knowledge of animal sensory perception can inspire new discoveries past exploring mechanistic explanations of how animals operate in circuitous environments. They very probable would have been impressed by what modern science has revealed well-nigh their corresponding and sometimes overlapping fields of interest past request nature questions with an emphasis on theory and experiment, respectively. If further information virtually the assumed lost alphabetic character from Glyn Davys to Einstein does nonetheless exist, it would exist of value to consider it in relation to the electric current manuscript, and how innovative researchers similar Einstein and von Frisch engaged the thinking of people at their time and across.

Change history

• 21 June 2021

  A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-021-01497-z

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Acknowledgements

Nosotros give thanks Mrs Judith Davys, Dr John Davys and Dr Aurore Avarguès-Weber for providing information and comments on a previous version of the manuscript, and Mag^a Natalie Barth for the translation from German of von Frisch's writings. We are grateful for the comments received from Prof. Dr. G. Zupanc and 2 anonymous reviewers which much improved the manuscript. AGD acknowledges the Australian Research Council Discovery Projects funding scheme (DP160100161), ADG acknowledges the Australian Research Council Future Fellowship funding scheme (FT160100357). SRH acknowledges funding from the Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellowship.

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Open access funding provided by University of Vienna.

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Affiliations

1. School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, 3001, Australia

   Adrian G. Dyer & Jair E. Garcia

2. Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Commonwealth of australia

   Adrian G. Dyer

3. ARC Eye of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, School of Science, RMIT Academy, Melbourne, VIC, 3001, Australia

   Andrew D. Greentree

4. Department of Computer science and Software Technology, Swinburne University of Engineering, Hawthorn, VIC, 3122, Australia

   Elinya L. Dyer

5. Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin Academy, Burwood, VIC, 3217, Australia

   Scarlett R. Howard

6. Section of Neurosciences and Developmental Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstr.14, 1090, Vienna, Austria

   Friedrich Chiliad. Barth

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Correspondence to Friedrich 1000. Barth.

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Dyer, A.Yard., Greentree, A.D., Garcia, J.Eastward. et al. Einstein, von Frisch and the honeybee: a historical letter comes to low-cal. J Comp Physiol A 207, 449–456 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-021-01490-6

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• Received: 18 January 2021

• Revised: 27 April 2021

• Accepted: 28 April 2021

• Published: 10 May 2021

• Event Date: July 2021

• DOI : https://doi.org/ten.1007/s00359-021-01490-6

Keywords

• Albert Einstein
• Karl von Frisch
• Insect
• Skylight polarization pattern
• Long distance navigation

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